In the past two decades a number of projects have been aimed at
improving resource management of rice farmers. However, the resource
use decisions of most farmers have remained quite unchanged. The lack
of impact in some projects may be because they were not planned to
create impact. Impact may be viewed as creating change and to achieve
the desired effects, a planning framework has been found to be useful
in conceptualizing, designing and managing activities in the project.
The framework is aimed at facilitating partners to arrive at clear
statements of the desired impact of change, the target audience,
variables to be monitored and methods to measure them, expected
consequences of the impact, change motivations, change agents and the
approaches to be adopted.
To implement an intervention aimed at achieving impact, a
well-designed communication strategy is needed, which reflects the
identified problem and specifies how communication will be used in
solving the problem. The plan also outlines the management actions to
be taken in implementing the strategy. A communication plan provides
specific guidelines on what to do and how to make it happen
(Adhikarya, 1994).
1. Understand farmer needs, problems, and decisions
An important first step is to identify local farmers' perspectives and
the way they see the problem through focus group discussions (FGD),
interviews with various stakeholders, and analytical frameworks. A
number of methodologies are available for problem identification.
These include consultations with stakeholders, emic-etic framework,
focus group discussions, seasonal and historical profiles, and
in-depth field interviews. This analysis will provide important
baselines, help identify intervention opportunities and further
research needed to solve the problem. The baseline survey instrument
is developed after a series of FGDs to validate the issues and root
causes of the problem. The intent is to identify clearly the problems,
which may impede the adoption of the recommended innovation. Through
this analysis, one can determine the specific issues which has to be
resolved and whether the problem can be addressed through the
introduction of new information. Part of problem identification is to
review the organizational policies on the issue, which would enable
one to determine which aspects should be given priority. With baseline
data, an impact evaluation judgment can be made because there is a
basis for comparison (pretest vs. post-test measures or control vs.
treatment groups).
2. Evaluate available technical information and "distill" or simplify
them "heuristics" that are in the appropriate context of farmers and
can be tested easily by farmers, and motivate them to evaluate through
farmer participatory research.
To enable farmers to utilize scientific knowledge, it is necessary to
evaluate current information and synthesize and distill research
results from various sources into usable knowledge or practical
entities, which farmers can be encouraged to test. A wealth of
scientific information is available in the literature but it is often
written in a form and style that only scientists would understand.
Very often, they have great details explaining phenomena. At the
farmer's level, some of these details may or may not be needed. And if
they are, they are framed from a different perspective. If one
understands farmers' perspectives and reference points, one can
develop meaningful frameworks by which scientific information can be
distilled. Some require more scientific depth, such as the corn borer,
while some do not, like the leaf folder.
Once practical recommendations or simple rules have been distilled
from scientific research, the next step is to validate this in
farmers' fields through participatory research (FPR). FPR is an
approach that involves motivating farmers to conduct an experiment to
examine whether a hypothesis is valid or to determine whether
something previously untried will work. The outcome of their
experiments often lead farmers to adapt new technologies and spread
them to other farmers.
3. Review farmers' evaluation, modify, and design intervention through
a participatory process with initial stakeholders
Involve stakeholders from beginning through a problem definition workshop
In the design of an intervention, it is important to initiate a
participatory process with stakeholders from research, extension,
local government and NGOs. Such process will enable one to enhance
"buy-ins" and ownership from stakeholders, leverage local support and
provide a platform for designing the solution to the problem as well
as managing implementation. The most valuable aspect of the
participatory process is the platform it provides to facilitate
stakeholder participation and the development of "win-win" situations.
In this process, goals of participants from farmers, research,
extension, media, policy makers and NGOs are jointly developed towards
a "third alternative". The process provides constant feedback, which
encourages stakeholder discovery of successes or failures, ownerships
and development of innovative ideas.
Use various tools to obtain a common understanding of the problem at hand
Descriptive techniques
Seasonal profiles
This descriptive technique is used to describe changes that occur
throughout the season. The key components are identified and their
trends graphed over the season. The examples shown in Figs 8 and 9
are from China. Workshop participants in Hunan developed a linear
seasonal profile to illustrate annual patterns in temperatures,
rainfall, fertilizer use, and pest and disease severities. A circular
seasonal profile describing the stem borer's annual life cycle
provides more details of one pest. The numbers in the innermost circle
represent the months of the year; the next circle, the agricultural
cropping pattern; and the outermost circle, different stages in the
life cycle of the stem borer. The striped stem borer has three
generations in a year (G1, G2, and G3). The third generation, G3,
overwinters in the larval stage and the adults that emerge in April
constitute the recruitment generation, G0, of the next year.
Historical profiles
This technique is used when there is a need to see current problems
from a historical perspective. Through this approach, one can
understand the broad dimensions of pest problems, and identify
constraints and opportunities for resolving them (Norton and Mumford
1993). The first step in constructing a historical profile is to
identify the major factors that directly or indirectly influence the
development of pest problems. However, additional factors can always
be added as the analysis proceeds and reveals further key factors.
The next step is to determine the relevant time period over which
changes in these factors are to be considered; 20 years or more is
often desirable. However, this decision often depends on the
particular situation. A series of graphs can then be drawn, using
expert opinions available in the workshop group, or from various
statistical sources. The level of detail required in drawing the
historical profile is simply that which is sufficient to indicate
important trends and relationships. Further details often add little
to a good, rough assessment.
Uses of historical profiles
• It provides a structured means of bringing together information on
a range of aspects that may all have had some influence on the
development of the problem.
• Used as a workshop tool, it sets an agenda, helps to focus
discussion, provides a simplified method of communication between
participants from different disciplines, and stimulates interaction.
• In the process of constructing the historical profile, hypotheses or
key questions are raised.
• It provides a rigorous basis for thinking about possible future
developments (or scenarios) that can affect the status of the problem
and the ability of those concerned to deal with them.
Flow charts
Flow charts are useful means to describe relationships between
components of a system, such as the life cycle of an insect, the
components affecting rice pests and their control (Fig 4.1), or
factors contributing to a pest outbreak (Fig 4.2). These graphical
presentations help to enhance communication between participants
coming from different disciplines to develop a collective
understanding of the problem. Fig 4.2 shows the factors that might
have contributed to the outbreak of the brown planthopper in central
Thailand in 1989 as developed by workshop participants. The immediate
cause of the pest outbreak was escape from natural control, which was
brought about by factors such as pesticides, climate, cropping
practices, and the introduction of new cultivars. The new cultivar's
pest resistance had apparently broken down, contributing to the
increase in reproductive potential of the pest.
Discrimination analysis
This technique is often used in marketing research to discover the
consumer ranking of products. In a workshop focusing on the
management of the golden apple snail problem in rice, a number of
control methods were proposed. Each has its own merits and problems
and, based on a set of nine attributes, farmers' ranks for each were
scored. A discrimination profile (Fig 6.4.3) was developed from the
data and it easily illustrated the attributes one will need to
concentrate on to make the control method more acceptable by farmers.
For instance, farmers scored the use of chemicals as the most
independent and the use of ducks as the least independent. This was
mainly because in order to use ducks, farmers had to depend on another
source of supply, whereas chemicals were easily available to them. To
make the use of ducks more attractive to farmers, a system to
integrate duck rearing with desired attributes might be developed.
Force field analysis
Force field analysis can be a useful tool in helping discover
obstacles and opportunities (Lewin 1969). The current scenario may be
viewed as in a state of equilibrium between driving forces that
encourage an upward movement and restraining forces that discourage
it. Figure 11 shows an analysis of farmers' pesticide use,
illustrating driving and restraining factors. Such an analysis is
useful because it helps participants challenge blind spots that may
not be apparent. It also helps participants assess the forces that may
not be within direct control with a view of taking advantage of them.
For instance, pesticide advertising is a powerful driving force that
influences farmer perceptions and encourages pesticide use. Although
these activities may not be within the control of the participants who
try to promote rational use, they can seek ways to take advantage of
advertising approaches. Similarly, field force analysis can bring out
further strategies for evaluation.
Cause-and-effect analysis
After identifying the problem, there is a need to define it more
precisely. The Ishikawa diagram or fishbone diagram is a common tool
used in problem analysis QCC (Ishikawa, 1976). The analysis consists
of a sequence of lines and symbols that illustrate the relationship
between an effect (the problem identified) and its causes. It starts
with a skeleton such as that shown in Fig 12. The head of the fish is
the problem to be solved. In this example, the problem identified was
the lack of adoption of pesticide application technology. The four
main factors were the application equipment itself, the farmers who
use the equipment, the companies who manufacture and sell the
equipment, and the government that regulates pesticide use and assists
farmers engaging in better farm practices. The second and tertiary
causes, sometimes known as subcauses were developed through
brainstorming sessions. Further investigation of important subcauses
may be determined through data gathering. In this example, the
problem analysis led to a farmer survey where key constraints to
adoption were identified (Heong et al 1982).
Matrices
Matrices are useful means to describe relationships between key
components that affect the pest problem (Norton and Mumford 1993).
The matrix technique provides a structured approach that forces
participants to consider each interaction cell. In addition, it is a
convenient way to establish communication among participants. The
various applications of this technique are illustrated below.
Damage Matrix
The damage matrix is usefully applied to describe different pests
attacking the rice crop at different crop stages. Figure 13 is an
example of a damage matrix of pest problems in Malaysia. Pests are
put into categories (groups) and their importance at the different
crop stages are classified into three levels. The damage matrix allows
participants to see at a glance which pests are important and when.
Alternatively, one can consider a matrix describing the important
pests attacking the different parts of the crop.
4. Develop communication strategy in a participatory workshop with
stakeholders.
Formulate shared objectives
A good starting point is to develop a log frame for the project. As a
project design and management tool, it is a simple method of tying in
goals and objectives into inputs, processes and outputs. The log frame
below illustrates how it can be applied in a proposed impact project.
Sample log frame
Log frame : Motivating farmers to reduce pesticides
Narrative statements Objectively verifiable indicators Means of
verification Assumptions/Risks
Goal
To improve pest management, environment and health of rice farmers.
Purpose
To develop a multi media campaign to motivate rice farmers reduce
pesticides through stakeholder participation.
Farmers in project area reduce pesticide use by 30% in 3 years.
Paper published Partnership between key stakeholders established.
Outputs
1. Stakeholder workshop and project team organized.
2. Baseline on farmers' pesticide use completed.
3. Design workshop, prototypes of motivational campaign developed.
4. Campaign materials pretested, finalized & mass-produced.
5. Campaign launched, materials distributed and broadcasted.
6. Mgt monitoring and post implementation surveys & impact assessment
completed.
A local multi stakeholder project team organized.
Farmers' knowledge, attitude & practice survey carried out.
Design workshop held. Prototypes developed by team.
Prototypes pretested by farmers.
Launching Day by minister.
Surveys completed and pre post comparisons established
Stakeholder mtg report.
Baseline report
Design workshop report
Prototypes
Newspaper reports, campaign materials
Assessment reports
II. Activities
As in Gantt Chart
Estimated Budget
US$50,000
Choose appropriate delivery systems
In order to reach the millions, another factor to consider are the
delivery systems and methods required. If various forms of mass media
are available in a community, the media to be selected would depend on
the nature of the informational or instructional task, the information
processing ability of the specific audience group, and the
availability of resources of a province or department. In agriculture,
a wide range of delivery systems is available for use. Face-to-face
training and participatory programs have been shown to successfully
change perceptions and decisions (e.g. Matteson et al 1994; Heong and
Escalada 1997) but these approaches are often slow and expensive
(Quizon et al 2000). Communication campaigns often rely on mass
communication because it is easier and often less expensive to
distribute printed or audiovisual messages to mass audiences than it
is to organize supportive interpersonal communication on a large scale
(McAlister, 1981).
Strengths and weaknesses of delivery systems
Delivery system Strengths Weaknesses Remarks
Face-to-face (training, demonstration)
Very effective in changing attitudes and behavior
Very slow
Poster Attract attention, can create awareness quickly Can focus only
on key message, one message at a time.
Print – leaflet, brochure, flyer Effective for instruction, can
provide detailed and in-depth information Low reach as logistics
required for delivery
Radio Fast, easy to produce, can reach remote areas Ephemeral, no permanence
TV/video Effective training medium as it has both sight and sound Can
be expensive to produce and require special playback equipment.
Media selection issues
What media/channels are most popular and most influential?
What traditional media are used; who would be credible sources of information?
What media would provide useful triggers and prompts to action?
How does information and influence flow in households and communities?
Are there local marketing, advertising, public relations agencies, etc.
Factors to consider in deciding what media to use
1. Audience/demographics
–What are the viewing, listening, and reading habits of your audience?
2. Timing of message
–When does the audience need to receive the message?
–Do some parts of the message need to be communicated before others?
3. Budget
–How much can your project afford? For some areas, a radio drama is
just as effective as a TV drama and may be more feasible according to
most budgets of agriculture departments in developing countries.
4. Media effectiveness
–Which medium reaches the broadest segment of your target audience at
the lowest cost?
5. Media credibility
–Which medium has the highest credibility among farmers and what does it cost?
6. Media timeliness
–Which medium will deliver your message within the time constraints
necessary for it to be effective?
7. Media mix
–What combination of media best accomplishes the objectives of your
impact project?
Develop and pretest prototype communication materials
While the process of multi-media selection is important, the
effectiveness of the media chosen also depends on how appro¬priate¬¬ly
the contents are designed, developed, packaged and produced. Media
use in development can only be effective when its content and format
are based on audience needs and media preferences, its content is
transmitted through a combination of media, and its content is planned
in collaboration and coordination with field extension activities and
other inputs (Mody, 1992).
To enhance effectiveness of any communication strategy, the content
has to be carefully designed. The information has to be relevant and
practical to the intended audience and the format and presentation
have to be well crafted. In general, the degree of message
effectiveness is a function of the amount of reward that the message
offers and the level of effort required by the audience to interpret,
perceive and understand the message (Schramm, 1973). Given the central
importance of content, the message has to be carefully developed.
To ensure that the target audience correctly interprets, perceives and
understands the meaning of the message, a pretesting exercise would be
very useful and should be undertaken. Research plays an important role
in testing messages with samples of the target population. Message
drafts are presented to target audiences under circumstances
approximating real-life situations. Various testing techniques are
available, depending on the nature of the message and the media for
which it is intended. Formative evaluation is important, because its
purpose is to make messages more effective.
Develop a management plan - timeline and a budget for project implementation
An impact project requires a management plan, which specifies how the
communication strategy should be put into operation. The main
objective of management planning is to provide program organizers with
a systematic procedure for mobilizing available resources effectively
and efficiently according to the campaign plan. In planning program
activities, a realistic time estimate for the completion of an
activity required to support the program should be considered.
The most widely used technique for simple project planning and
scheduling is based on the Gantt chart. This technique consists of
two components, a list of activities in the project and a calendar of
each activity. When used in a group-planning environment, the Gantt
chart facilitates discussion on partners' commitments to activities
and target schedules. The output provides partnerships with a
summary of the project activities, expected times of start and
completion as well as a tool for project monitoring. A Gantt chart is
a useful tool to track proper execution of activities within a given
time frame (see sample Gantt chart).
Plan for monitoring and impact assessment
A couple of months after the campaign launch, a management monitoring
survey must begin. The monitoring task should verify whether
communication activities are being implemented as planned. If some
problems are detected early enough, the campaign plan or
implementation procedures can be modified. Feedback from management
monitoring surveys is used as a basis for taking action to improve
program implementation while there is still a chance to do so.
Management monitoring can also provide information, which may be
utilized in validating findings of a summative evaluation of a
campaign and in providing insights into the possible reasons for the
evaluation results. An appropriate monitoring and supervision of the
field workers' performance and the multi-media delivery system will
likely ensure that the program will be implemented as planned.
After the conclusion of campaign implementation, a summative
evaluation is conducted to assess its perform¬ance, effects and
impact. Results are normally used to determine whether the
communication strategy has accomplished its objectives and whether
activities need to be expanded as a follow-up program. Summative
evaluation results should be used as inputs to formulate new or
improved communication objectives or to help set up new baselines for
future activities of a similar nature.
Launch and implement
After the prototype of multi-media materials are pretested and
revised, the next step is to have the materials reproduced and prepare
for campaign launching and materials distribution. To coordinate the
campaign launching and implementation, a project management committee
needs to be formed with representatives from various stakeholders. The
committee is responsible for ensuring that the project will be
implemented as planned.
The campaign launching is a high profile event, which is officially
graced by the agriculture minister and other top-level national and
provincial officials. As such, it receives extensive national coverage
on radio, television and print media. In many cases, besides the
launch in the capital city, another kick-off ceremony is held in the
province where the campaign or project is to be implemented. The local
event is aimed at enlisting the support and commitment of community
influentials and at increasing the public prestige and credibility of
the local extension workers who organized the launch in their district
(Adhikarya and Posamentier, 1987).
Successful project implementation also requires that those who will be
directly involved are properly motivated and informed on how to
integrate campaign tasks with their routine activities. To facilitate
project implementation, a project management plan has to be drawn up
and provisions made for timely monitoring and supervision of the
multi-media delivery system. This is intended to provide the project
staff with rapid feedback on various project activities.
Monitor and evaluate
To track change and demonstrate impact, indicators are needed and
developed with various stakeholders. Among the stakeholders, there has
to be a consensus on what an assessment is for, whose objectives are
being served, and how the data will be used. Impact analysis or
evaluation is an approach, which measures the outcomes of an
intervention apart from other possible factors. It is intended to
determine whether the program had the desired effects on individuals,
households, and institutions and whether those effects can be
attributed to program intervention. Impact evaluations can also
ascertain unintended consequences, whether positive or negative, on
beneficiaries.
Conduct final project review and reporting
The final project review and workshop is a mechanism for partners to
report results, encourage multiplier effects and buy-ins from local
government, donors, etc.
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